| 单词 | Conversion |
| 释义 | 轉換 The transformation of something from one state to another, for example, the conversion of one large building into several individual flats, or the conversion of one’s religious belief. Criminal law - The dishonest appropriation by a person of another’s property with the intention of permanently depriving the other of it: Theft Ordinance (Cap 210) ss 2-7. See also Larceny by a bailee; Theft. Equity - The equitable doctrine whereby conversion is the notional change of land into money (being personal property) and vice versa. Money directed to be employed in the purchase of land, land directed to be sold and turned into money, will be treated as the species of property into which it is directed to be converted. Conversion therefore transforms realty into personalty and personalty into realty: Fletcher v Ashburner (1779) 1 Bro CC 497, 28 ER 1259. This may occur when partnership land is treated as personalty, or by way or a court order, or where an estate forming part of a trust is subject to a contract for the sale and purchase of land. If the conversion is directed by a deed or by a will and there is a total failure of the objects for which the conversion was directed, then the conversion does not take place. If only partial failure of the objects under the will occurs, then the property passes to the person entitled to it in its unconverted state and hence, takes it in its converted form. Where there is a deed, the property reverts to the settler in its converted form; ‘equity regards as done that which ought to be done’. The Intestates’ Estates Ordinance (Cap 73), by establishing a uniform system of intestate succession for real and personal property, greatly diminished the importance of the doctrine of conversion, which is now concerned mainly with the competing claim of devisees of land and legatees of money: Halsbury’s Laws of Hong Kong, Vol 11, Equity [165.141]. See also Equity; Reconversion. Sale of goods - Where property has passed from the seller to the buyer and/or the immediate right to possession has passed from the seller to the buyer, the buyer, in addition to remedies in contract, may have an action in tort for detinue or conversion: Sale of Goods Ordinance (Cap 26) ss 19-22. That means, due consideration must be given to the relative quantum of damages potentially available based in contract or in tort as the latter may offer no more: The Arpad [1934] P 189. One advantage in bringing the action in tort is that it may avail against third parties who have meddled with, or caused damage to, the goods at a time when the buyer had the immediate right to possession. Tort - 1.The wrongful disposition of another person’s property (excluding land) as if it were one’s own. Conversion can arise in three forms: first, the positive, wrongful act of dealing with another’s goods with the intention of denying the other’s rights, or to assert a right inconsistent with them: Bromley v Coxwell (1801) 2 Bos & P 438. Second, where goods are wrongfully detained by the defendant, the old common law action of detinue arises and now gives rise to an action in conversion. Third, when goods are lost or destroyed by a bailee in breach of his duty as a bailee. 2. Detinue, replevin and trover are all directly related to conversion. Detinue and replevin are common law remedies for the recovery of specific personal property, and trover the common law remedy for compensatory damages for the conversion of one’s personal property. Detinue originated from the writ of debt for the return of wrongfully detained goods (not necessarily wrongfully taken), whereby the defendant could either return the property or pay the plaintiff a sum of money equivalent to the value of the goods as determined by the courts. Detinue was statutorily abolished in the UK in 1997 when the tort of wrongful interference of goods was established. Replevin developed in order to test the legality of one person’s seizure of another’s goods (known as distraint). See also Actual possession; Constructive possession; Detinue; Restraint; Possession; Replevin; Trespass to chattels; Trover; Wrongful interference with goods. 變換、侵佔財產、轉為己用把某東西由一狀態轉換成另一狀態，例如，把一座大型建築物改建成數間獨立的單元房，或改變一個人的宗教信仰。 刑法 - 一人不誠實地挪佔屬於另一人的財產，意圖永久地剝奪該另一人的財產：《盜竊罪條例》（第210章）第2-7條。另見 Larceny by a bailee; Theft。 衡平法 - 一項衡平法概念，指出土地轉換為款額（即為個人財產），或由款額轉換為土地。收購土地的款額和透過出售而拆成現金的土地，在其「轉換」過程中，被視作其用以轉換成為的財產，因此「轉換」將不動產變為動產，將動產變為不動產：Fletcher v Ashburner (1779) 1 Bro CC 497, 28 ER 1259。如合夥土地被視為動產，或法庭命令「轉換」，或組成信托部份的產業受土地買賣合約管轄，則可能產生「轉換」；如轉換是由契據或遺囑指示，但其指示目的已完全消失，則不會產生「轉換」。如遺囑的部分目的不獲履行，則該財產以其未被改變的狀況轉移予具享有權的人士；但在有契據的情況下，該財產會以其已改變後的狀況復歸予財產授予人；衡平法視應做的事為已被完成。《無遺囑者遺產條例》（第73章）為無遺囑者的土地財產和個人財產設立了劃一的繼承制度，削弱了轉換原則的重要性，以致轉換原則僅應用於土地遺產繼承人及非土地遺贈人（即款額遺產繼承人）：Halsbury’s Laws of Hong Kong，第11冊，衡平法，第[165.141]段。另見 Equity; Reconversion。 貨品售賣 - 凡物業已由賣方移交予買方，及／或即時管有權已由賣方移交予，除合約上的補救方法外，該買方可就要求歸還扣留物或轉為己用的行為，提起侵權訴訟：《貨品售賣條例》（第26章）第19至22條。即應適當考慮根據合約或侵權法上潛在可得的損害賠償的相對份量，因為後者可能不再提供損害賠償：The Arpad [1934] P 189。提起侵權訴訟的好處是，侵權訴訟可針對該買方擁有即時管有權時的貨物干預或造成損害的第三者。 侵權法 - 1.以處理像屬於自己的財產的方式不當地處置另一方的財產（不包括土地）。「轉換」可在下三種情況出現：第一、有人不當地處置另一方的物品，意圖否定該方的權利或提出與該等權利有抵觸的權利：Bromley v Coxwell (1801) 2 Bos & P 438。第二、被告人不當地扣押物品，可引起舊式普通法的「要求歸還扣留物的訴訟」，及現行的轉換訴訟。第三、受托保管人有違其責任而遺失或毀壞物品。 2.「要求歸還扣留物的訴訟」、「追回原物的訴訟」及「追索對物非法占有的訴訟」，皆與「轉換」直接有關，並屬普通法補救方法。「要求歸還扣留物的訴訟」和「追回原物的訴訟」是用以收回某特定個人財產；「追索對物非法佔有的訴訟」則用作轉換個人財產的補償賠償。「要求歸還扣留物的訴訟」源自用以交還被不當扣押（但無須被不當取得）的物品的清償債務令狀，根據此等清償債務令狀，被告人可交還該財產或向原告人償付一筆款額，該款額相當於該物品的價值（由法院判定）。在英國，「要求歸還扣留物的訴訟」已於1997年被法例廢除，確立了不當地侵占財物的侵權法。「追回原物的訴訟」用作測試一方檢取另一方的物品的合法性（稱為「扣押財物」）。另見 Actual possession; Constructive possession; Detinue; Restraint; Possession; Replevin; Trespass to chattels; Trover; Wrongful interference with goods。n. |
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